This essay reviews aspects of Caucasian hair care and practices during the period 1750-1950 in the United Kingdom. It will highlight potentially harmful practices and explain how improvements in scientific knowledge and social changes have helped the development of hair care over this period.

18th Century London, with open drainage, badly ventilated houses and insanitary living conditions, was an obvious breeding ground for germs. Personal hygiene was not common place with hair washing a twice-yearly event. Coupled with poor sanitation, this contributed to many scalp infections and diseases such as, ringworm, head lice, and impetigo leading to secondary infections.

Fashion demanded that women have big, complicated hairstyles. They subjected their hair to various tortures such as powdering their hair after curling it with hot tongs and applying lard as the base to which the powder would adhere. Many women resorted to wearing hairpieces and wigs. Since many of these were difficult to attach and sculpt on a daily basis women had their hair set, which consisted of being curled, larded and the finished article liberally dusted with white powder (wheatmeal) applied with the aid of hand bellows. This was to last over a period of weeks or even a month! To help construct these hairstyles accessories such as cushions and rolls made of horsehair or wool of various sizes were used. However, these proved uncomfortable to wear and caused headaches so were later replaced by wire supports. These styles were impossible to comb, too complicated to take down each night and washing was still a twice-yearly event. This soon became so unbearable that ladies had their heads shaved and wore periwigs of a similar style. Men also wore powdered wigs, often made by barbers whose profession spectacularly declined following the earlier dissolution of the alliance with surgeons. In 1795, the English government taxed hair powder, effectively causing the demise of the fashion for wigs and powder by 1800.

Not surprisingly, people suffered from many scalp problems. Infestation of lice was common, but the use of lard, which went rancid, attracted vermin frequently found nesting in the hair and wigs that were seldom cleaned. As for the head lice, long sticks with tiny claws on the end, which antique dealers refer to as back scratchers, were used in an endeavour to relieve the intolerable itching. This scratching led to the skin on the scalp becoming broken, encouraging bacteria to invade the scalp causing secondary infection.

With the disappearance of the powdered coiffure used to disguise a dirty head, hair had to be cleaned more frequently, and the practice of dry-shampooing increased in the 19th Century. This was achieved using a cleansing agent, the most common being petrol, which was massaged into the hair and the resulting dirt rubbed out with a towel. This led to several accidents, some fatal, the substance being so unstable that merely massaging it into the hair could ignite it. Carbon tetrachloride was seen as a suitable replacement, but the effects of this liquid were similar to chloroform, causing immense problems if inhaled. The fumes were so deadly, that the shampoo could only be used in a well-ventilated room. The fetish for cleanliness led to the construction of public baths and wash houses, which provided hot and cold water. The city of Liverpool built the first of its kind in England in 1842. As a further aid to cleanliness, the manufacture of soaps had become a thriving industry in Victorian England.

Following the demise of powdered curls; natural hair encouraged the use of cosmetics with an emphasis on all things natural due to an early lack of commercial preparations. Home made hair pomades, oils, shampoos and dyes were mostly preparations based on the natural remedies of the middle ages and Elizabethan England, for example Lye made from ashes would be used as a shampoo, the juice of nettles and herbs as a conditioner and bears grease as a pomade.

As the century progressed men, through the changes in working lifestyles, had less time and hair became shorter and simpler, helped by advances in technology such as the introduction of hair clippers in 1879 and the mechanisation of the comb industry. Just as in the 20th Century men also worried about baldness. Treatments and cures were concocted of substances as varied as bears grease, beef marrow, onion juice, butter, flower water, and the toxic substances sulphur and mercury. Baldness was thought to occur for a variety of reasons such as brushing the hair vigorously for long periods or an over enthusiastic application of bears grease, which was said to rot the roots. For women styles became longer, quantity rather than quality became important. Girls were taught to care for their hair almost to the point of obsession. One hundred strokes with a brush from the scalp to the ends every night! Believed to promote hair growth it is a practice now frowned upon, making the hair greasy by overstimulating the sebaceous glands. Curls and braiding were also popular with the Victorians. Tongs were heated over a gas jet or an alcohol lamp and then the hair wrapped around the tongs. This practice caused fried hair and burnt and blistered fingers.

Victorian women dyed their hair using mixtures of balsam, sulphur, lead, beef marrow and castor oil, then setting it with lotions of carbonate of potassium, glycerine, ammonia and spirit of rosewater. The earliest dyes were natural extracts like henna. Henna was quick to stain the skin around the hairline, so Vaseline was applied to client's forehead and tips of ears as prevention. Although henna was the least harmful of these dyes, continuous use could result in brittle hair. Related scalp disorders and intoxication by absorption of harmful substances such as lead was still a problem.

The chemicals used in the 19th Century to make blondes out of brunettes proved far more dangerous than first suspected. Women used a solution made of potentially lethal oxalic acid to change their hair colour. They believed that an excess of iron in the system caused dark hair, and the acid was thought to neutralise iron. They mixed an ounce of oxalic acid in a pint of water, soaked their hair thoroughly, and went out into the sunshine to let it dry. This procedure was to be repeated, according to one pamphlet of the day "until it begins to affect the skin when it must be discontinued, otherwise the hair will fall out." Personal hygiene was obviously beginning to improve; particularly it seems towards hair care. The Hairdressers guild was set up in 1882 to improve the social position of the trade. Hairdresser's Journal, also conceived in the same year, became the mouthpiece for the profession. The first serious investigations into hair health had begun. School inspections of head lice were also established in the 1870s to help try and eradicate the problem, where 90% of all children in England could be infected at any given time. Recommended treatments for head lice were either horse sweat or shaving the head.

By the Edwardian era an extravagant femininity was rife amongst upper and middle class women. The feminine ideal called for enormous hair-dos, padded out to increase their bulk and were very much dependant on the use of postiche. These styles required a lot of time and energy spent on their upkeep, hours were devoted to brushing, drying and dressing the hair and then adding these false pieces which had to be pinned, combed and braided. One of the main tasks of the posticheur was to prepare, clean and make up combings. These combings were lots of loose hair accumulated over the years by hairdressers in the salon or by the client at home. Most of the hair used though was imported and then boiled in diluted nitric acid to remove the colour, a practice that ruined the health of the workers responsible. These combings were then transformed into tails and switches. First they were shaken in the open air to eliminate dust. They were then teased out by the fingers of the posticheur and disentangled by carding using a wire brush. This practice often resulted in torn bleeding fingers, but the main drawback came from nits, which had to be systematically squashed in a nitting machine. Unfortunately for many women their hair had become thin as a result of overbinding when tying in postiches and too much crimping and curling.

In the 20th Century women began to venture into salons. Those in the West End of London were dangerous places to have ones hair washed, due to the state of the Victorian drains. Customers, on being shampooed, had to lean over bringing their faces in close proximity to the hole in the sink. Any air coming up the pipe formed a large bubble of sewer gas, and on bursting led to customers inhaling its contents, which could be carrying deadly viruses. To overcome this problem the practice came into being in the 1920's of the customer sitting with her back to the sink. Ringworm was rife amongst the heads of the poor, who were encouraged to take their own brushes and combs when they visited the barbers or the hairdresser because of the risk of infection.

There was a dramatic change from the long dressed hair fashion for women to the bob in the early 1920's. Modern women were becoming educated and started to enter the workplace. Caring for long tresses was time-consuming, this new life demanded easier to care for hairstyles. Short hair became popular and the very first wearers had to brave the barbers for a cut. Realising these women would require their services more frequently for trimming, barbers and hairdressers were forced to improve methods and modernise. When bobbing hair, hairdressers sealed off the cut-ends, a practice known as singeing. This practice was believed to stop the juices of the hair from running out, therefore promoting healthier growth. The fashion for short hair encouraged more frequent washing, often achieved using soap and hot water or egg and rainwater and finally a rinse of water and lemon juice was applied to cleanse and give shine. A product used at this time was Hebras soap, one part soft soap to two parts alcohol, and a touch of spirit and lavender essence. This concoction was unusual, as it did not lather. Alcohol is known to have a drying effect on the scalp. Hairdressers also used a product called Sal Saponis Aethereal, which consisted of soft soap and ether, which had previously been used by surgeons for scrubbing up. This liquid shampoo was highly inflammable and its use near naked lights could be disastrous.

Many changes came before and after WWI, when we saw the development of the apprenticeship system, hairdressing schools and the formation of bodies such as the Institute of Trichologists. The introduction of technical literature and a scientific approach to the craft led to the recognition of disorders and diseases of the hair and technology began to enter the workplace with machines for hair cutting, singeing, massage, waving and perming. The first true hairdryer came onto the market in 1920, but it was extremely large and heavy and frequently overheated. By the 1930's new methods of drying hair began to be investigated, including the suction method (whereby air was drawn away from the head) and the more direct blowing action of gas-heated dryers. They dried the hair too harshly and the fumes from the dryers were highly dangerous to both the hairdresser and customer. Hairdressers were warned that they might become fatigued and listless, due to the effects of carbon monoxide, which was one of the products of combustion of a gas-heated hairdryer. The safer electric dryers were in existence but were very expensive.

In 1908, Marcel Grateau from France came to England and introduced his famous Marcel wave, which revolutionised hairdressing techniques. It consisted of a temporary wave put into the hair by means of hot tongs, the whole process taking no more than 10-20 minutes. This technique became a staple of the hairdresser's craft and was one of the practices to distinguish between the ladies hairdresser and the barber. Unfortunately the use of waving irons had quite serious effects upon the hair; repeated heating damaged the cuticle, making the hair rough and therefore lacking in lustre. It became subject to static electrical charges on brushing and combing, leading to flyaway hair. If the tongs were too hot the cuticle could be damaged or the whole hair burnt, resulting in breakage. Burns to the scalp could cause damage to the hair roots, subsequent bald patches and possible infections.

In 1906 Charles Nestle produced the first permanent wave machine, then in its infancy but later to become a perfected and reliable form of a curling process. Enormous overhead machines, hanging from the ceiling, made up of heavy heaters, brass curlers and borax rods balanced by weights produced the waves. The hair was then heated by an electrical current after it had been wound on a curler and moistened with an aqueous solution of alkali, combining the wigmakers art of waving hair with hot alkalis with Marcel's technique of heating hair on the head. The whole process took hours and wasn't without its drawbacks. Injuries during the Nestle process became commonplace as the chemical solution was heated to such a degree that burning the scalp was a distinct possibility. The porcelain rods frequently overheated, melting the Bakelite cores, leaving the scalp covered in plastic. Hairdresser's Journal reported that, following this treatment, a models' scalp showed two inflamed spots, which became painful and developed into a septic ulcer, consequently leaving a bald patch the size of a sixpenny piece. Also the inexperience of perm operators resulted in overheated hair, making it dry and brittle and liable to breakage, or made so curly it had to be hidden under a scarf to avoid ridicule. Furthermore, injuries as a result of electric shocks were common. After the initial expense of a permanent wave, women were reluctant to brush or comb their hair, in case they ruined the effect. Unfortunately this led to an infestation of head lice. Women were given advice on how to care for their new waves and were encouraged to brush and comb their hair every evening and give the scalp a few minutes massage. Products began to appear and were used before and after the permanent to lessen the harmful effects. These were usually made up of alkalis and borax or gum substances in spirit and water. Some women created their own setting lotions at home from beaten egg and water and sometimes olive oil applied directly to the hair.

There were many modifications made to Nestles' machine, but it was Peter Sartory who produced a chemical pad enabling women to have permanent waves without spending hours under the machine. In Sartorys' technique the same chemical reagent was used, the hair wound around a spiral curler and then the pad applied, producing waves by a combination of lotion and heat. This treatment became very popular during WWII due to restrictions in the use of electricity and shortage of materials. Professor Speakman of Leeds University developed the first cold wave solution in 1936, unavailable until after the war, when the chemicals required could be manufactured in Britain. Although far safer, the cold wave process could still cause injuries. Burnt foreheads and red necks occurred as a result of over-saturating the hair with the harsh chemicals. Furthermore the resultant alkaline condition raises the cuticle scales making the hair rough and dull and the process removes much of the hairs coating of sebum causing dryness and brittleness.

The compulsion to curl in the 1930's was not to be outdone by womens desire for the dye bottle and attitudes to the practice of dyeing and bleaching changed dramatically in 20th Century. Although the chemist Thenard originally invented hydrogen peroxide in 1818, the fashion for blondes in this century released its cosmetic potential. A common formulation for bleach was peroxide with ammonia, added to ivory soap flakes to make a paste. To achieve the platinum effect, hairdressers used a rinse of methylene blue or diluted methyl violet, creating a white appearance, thus removing the yellow tinge. The blonding process was quite dangerous with the chemicals inflicting headaches and scalp burns. Women were prepared to risk the ruination of their hair in order to become blonde. The harsh bleaches used made the hair extremely dry and brittle resulting in almost definite breakage. Treatments included steeping the hair in castor oil and hot water before shampooing. In 1909 the first range of hair dyes were offered to the public under the name of L'Oreal, invented by chemist Eugene Schueller. The original dyes were para-compounds of para-phenylene diamine or para-toluylene, a derivative of coal tar which, when mixed with peroxide, produced various shades which were permanent. Although these dyes had the desired effect colour wise, they were in fact notoriously toxic and problems arose with severe allergic reactions. In 1931 the author of The Art and Craft of Ladies Hairdressing described these allergic reactions to dyes; " First of all there is the appearance of pustules accompanied by intolerable itching, followed by eczema. The skin is violet red, inflamed damp and oozing; there are swellings underneath the eye and the eyelids, and frequently the whole face is swollen. The forehead is often burnt and blistered and the neck covered in red patches. The lips are red and thick and the interior of the mouth is swollen, ulceration supervening. Violent headaches and shivering are also felt and in chronic cases, the legs and feet become swollen." Britain responded with one of the first instances of consumer protection in the 1933 Pharmacy and Poison Act, which gave warnings on packaging and a patch test became a legal requirement.

Up until the mid 20th Century, barbers, still languishing in unhygienic outdated practices, their shops badly ventilated and often underground, were blameworthy centres for spreading much preventable diseases such as seborrhoea of the scalp, secondary alopecia, ringworm and favus, sycosis, impetigo, erysipelas and lice. Voluntary practices, such as in the City of London and ensuing legislation paved the way for overdue improvements.

WWII brought fashion to a halt due to restrictions in the manufacture of chemicals. Women resorted to alternative methods to achieve a curl; such as mixtures of sugar and water on the hair, curled with pipe cleaners and left on overnight. This solution dried hard and made the hair brittle. The overuse of inferior home perms resulted in overprocessed, porous and dry hair and the constant use of curling tongs contributed to the poor condition of women's hair. Technological advances stemming from WWII had enormous effects on the hair industry. Skyrocketing development in the chemical industry encouraged mass consumerism. Dye discoveries evolved at a rapid pace. In 1946 Clairol marketed semi-permanent colours and rinses and products began to be "kinder to the hair". Shortage of fats led to the development of synthetic detergents. The first soapless shampoos became available, which removed the problems of getting soap scum off the hair with lemon rinses.

In conclusion, this essay has chronologically described the introduction and demise of some of the widespread harmful and unsafe practices between 1750-1950. Hair care was often a painful and hazardous experience. Thus, the great advances in science and technology together with improved hygiene have helped turn the care of hair into the relatively safe practice we now take for granted.

References

Balsam, M.S. & Sagarin, Edward. (Vol 2) "Cosmetics. Science and Technology."

Cosgrave, B. "Costume and Fashion. A Complete History."

Cox, Caroline. (1999) "Good Hair Days. A History of British Hairdressing."

Cutting, P., Ross, R., Hill, R. (1998) "Hairdressing Theory, Science and Practice."

Gunn, Fenja. (1973) "The Artificial Face. A History of Cosmetics."

Keyes, Jean. (1967) "A History of Women's Hairstyles. 1500-1965."

Laver, James. (1969) "Costumes and Fashion. A Concise History."

O'Donavan, W.J. (1930) " The Hair: Its Care, Diseases and Treatment."